History of Istanbul
The first
settlement
About 300,000 years
ago the first inhabitants of what is now Istanbul made their home in Yarımburgaz
Cave on the shores of Küçükçekmece lake. At the end of the last ice
age, when the lake formed, human beings continued to inhabit the cave
through the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods. Meanwhile on the Asian
coast of Istanbul, excavations near Dudullu have uncovered tools dating
from the Lower Palaeolithic age (around 100,000 years ago). And near Ağaçlı
north of the city, Middle Palaeolithic and Upper Palaeolithic period tools
have been found. There was an important culture at Fikirtepe on the Kurbağılıdere
river in Kadıköy around 5000 BC.
Byzantium (660 BC
- 324 AD)
Pioneers from the
city of Megara on the Greek mainland, where in ü80 BC Dorian
incursions had been causing havoc, and other settlers from Miletus on the
Anatolian coast of the southern Aegean, established the city of Chalcedon,
what is today Kadıköy on Istanbul's eastern shore. Another group of
Megarans consulted the Oracle of Delphi about the situation of their new
city, and the oracle told them to found their city opposite the Land of
the Blind. The blind turned out to be the Chalcedonians, who had failed to
see the superiority of the site on the opposite side of the Bosphorus. So
began the history of Byzantium, which was founded in 660 BC on Sarayburnu
('Palace Headland' as the Turks named it in reference to Topkapı Palace).
The Chalcedonians and Byzantines got on amicably, placing both their names
on coins that they minted jointly.
Walls
were constructed around Byzantium, which stood on a peninsula. There was
sea on three sides and abundant fish. The Golden Horn inlet was a
sheltered harbour right by the city. There was fertile land for
agriculture, and it was conveniently placed on the maritime trade routes.
All these factors combined to make Byzantium grow quickly in size and
prosperity.
But Byzantium's
unsurpassed advantages and wealth also made it a tempting target for
invaders. In 269 BC it was captured by the Bithynians and looted. In 202
BC the Macedonian threat obliged Byzantium to seek aid from Rome, and this
was the first step towards Rome's own possession of the city.
In 73 AD Byzantium
became part of the Roman province of Bithynia-Pontus. The Emperor
Vespasian contributed to the city's development. In 193, after Byzantium
took sides with the Parthians, the Roman emperor Septimus Sevenrus
besieged the city, looted it, and pulled down the walls. Subsequently he
had the walls rebuilt, and constructed new buildings and streets. He began
constnıction of the Hippodrome. In 269 the city was attacked by the
Goths, who to mark their victory erected a column close to the sea. In 313
the Nicomedians took the city, but did not hold it for long before Emperor
Constantine recaptured it.
Capital of the
Roman Empire (324 -
395)
The
lands of the Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic in the west to the
Euphrates and the Tigris to the east, and early in the fourth century the
idea of establishing a second capital to control the eastern provinces had
germinated. Byzantium, strategically positioned at the crossroads of the
land and sea trade routes between east and west, was the obvious choice.
This new status underscored the city's significant cultural and political
position in the Old World.
Constantine I the
Great (324-337) invited high-born Romans to settle in Byzantium, so
swelling the Roman population. At the same time he launched a building
programme to befit the city for its new role as eastern capital. The
harbours and water supply channels were improved, and construction
commenced of a new water distribution system within the city. A new wall
was built to improve the city's defences.
The Hippodrome begun
by Septimus Sevenıs was completed. This great building, 117 m wide and
480 m long, could seat 100.000 people. Down the centre was the spina,
around which the chariots raced. As well as chariot racing, the Hippodrome
was used for wild animal fights, athletic competitions, festivals,
celebrations and entertainments. It was mainly here that the ordinary
people got the chance to see and be with the emperor. The most exciting
events of all were the chariot races between four teams, the Blues
representing the air, the Whites water, the Greens earth, and the Reds
fire. On the walls of the Hippodrome stood numerous statues, most famous
of which were the four bronze horses later carried back to Venice by the
Latin invaders and installed in St. Mark's Square.
The
imperial palace was next to the Hippodrome on the site where Sultanahmet
Mosque now stands, and the area where Topkapı Palace was later built was
the ancient acropolis with its monumental temples.
Known earlier as Nea
Roma, Constantine I named it Constantinople after himself on 11 May 330.
The same year he
built the Forum Constantine (now Çemberlitaş Square), and had a bronze
statue of himself placed on top of the tall column brought here from the
Temple of Apollo in Rome. The 35 m high column was badly damaged at an
early date, and iron hoops placed around it in the early 5th century. As a
result the Turks referred to it as the Hooped Stone or Çemberlitaş.
Constantine I
erected the Milion Stone which was the symbolic hub of all roads fanning
out through the Eastern Roman Empire, into Russia, Persia, Egypt and
Europe. Just as all roads had earlier led to Rome, they now led to
Constantinople, and merchants from a myriad countries found their way here
from the remotest corners of the world.
When
Christianity developed into a religion based on the figure of Christ and
his divine mission, the concept of the church arose. Haghia Eirene, the
church of the Divine Peace, was one of the oldest Eastern Roman churches,
and took its present form when it was enlarged during the reign of
Constantine I. Before Haghia Sophia was constructed this was the
patriarchal cathedral. After the Turkish conquest it was used as an
armoury by the janissaries, and housed Turkey's first military museum
established in the nineteenth century. It stands in the first courtyard of
Topkapı Palace.
Haghia Sophia, the
largest and most magnificent of the eastern churches, was first built in
360 by Constantine I. Although the patriarch of Constantinople was the
nominal head of the Orthodox Church, all authority lay with the emperor.
The city's infrastn.ıcture
quickly became inadequate for the city as its population grew, and in 375
the Emperor Valens (364-378) constructed the 1000 m long Valens Aqueduct
as part of a new water supply system over the valley west of the
Hippodrome. Water from the Belgrade Forest beyond the city was carried
over the aqueduct to the centre of the city around the Great Palace.
Several sets of
walls were built around the city, beginning with the time of its founder
Byzas, and they enclosed areas of differing size. Beyond the outer wall
was a moat 10 m deep and 20 m wide, and inside this a second wall with 96
towers. As well as gates used by the general public, there were others
reserved for military purposes. The walls overlooking the mouth of the
Golden Horn where the city was least wlnerable to attack were the weakest.
The next section to the south were the walls along the Marmara Sea which
were 8260 m long and pierced by the Ahırkapı, Çatladıkkapı, Samatya
and Narlıkapı gates. The land walls were 5632 m long and contained the
Belgrad, Silivrikapı, Mevlevihane, Topkapı, Edirnekapı, Eğrikapı and
Yedikule gates.
Yedikule
Gate was also known as Porta Aurea or the Golden Gate, and was the most
magnificent, consisting of three archways. It was built by Emperor
Theodosius (379-395). Over the gateway was a double headed Byzantine eagle
carved in relief. It was through this gate that the emperors passed when
returning from victorious campaigns. Istanbul's city walls were almost
invincible, and only breached twice in their entire history, once in 1204
by the Fourth Crusaders and once in 1453 by the Turks.
In 390 the Emperor
Theodosius I had an obelisk brought from Egypt to Istanbul which he
intended to erect as a mark of Roman supremacy. The obelisk dated from
1500 BCduring the reign of Pharaoh Tuthmosis II, and was one of two which
stood at the entrance of the Luxor Temple in the city of Teb. The
hieroglyphic inscriptions on the obelisk tell of sacrifices made to the
god Amon-Ra. The obelisk was placed on the spina in the Hippodrome, on a
rectangular marble plinth bearing relief carvings depicting Theodosius
watching chariot races in the Hippodrome, and scenes showing how the
obelisk was set in place.
Another monument on
the spina of the Hippodrome was a bronze statue of three entwined serpents
brought from the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. It had been made from the
shields of Persian soldiers killed in the Battle of Palatea. Originally
there was a gold cauldron resting on the heads of the three serpents, but
this was apparently melted down for minting coins during the Latin
occupation of the city, along with the bronze plates which covered the
third of the ancient monuments on the spina, a stone pillar 32 m in
height.
Capital of the
Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire (395 - 1453)
Upon
the death of Theodosius in 395 AD the empire was partitioned into East and
West, and Constantinople became capital of the Eastern Roman Empire,
subsequently known as the Byzantine Empire. The first Byzantine emperor
was Arcadius (395-408). The short reign of Arcadius was followed by the
long one of Theodosius II (408-450), who in 439 constructed new additions
to the three sets of walls, closing up all weak points in the land and sea
walls.
The first synagogue
built in Istanbul was located in the district of Bakırcılar, and was
converted into a church by Theodosius II in 450. In the sixteenth century
there were over thirty synagogues in Istanbul.
The great cistern
built in the sixth century by Justinian I (527-565) to supply the palace
with water became known as the Basilica Cistern because the commercial
basilica stood on top of it. Two of the 336 columns in the cistern stand
upon carved heads of Medusa taken from earlier buildings.
Haghia Sophia had
been burned down twice during insurrections and was rebuilt by Justinian
in 537. Various stories about the church were current aınong the people
of Istanbul. One of these related that during mass one day the Emperor
Justinian dropped the holy bread in his hand. Before he could bend down to
pick it up, a bee seized the bread and and flew off with it. The emperor
sent messengers to bee keepers throughout the empire telling them to look
out for this bread in their hives, and offering a reward for whoever found
it. A few days later a bee keeper came to the capital with an unusually
shaped honey comb thought to have resulted from the effects of the holy
bread. Justinian decided to construct a şplendid church on the same plan
as the honey comb. Anthemius of Tralles and Isidor of Miletus were
appointed architects of the church, which rose up in its full splendour.
The church was renovated and restored on numerous occasions over the next
fourteen centuries, the last major changes being carried out by the Swiss
Fossati brothers at the request of Sultan Abdülmecid in 1847-1849.
Another Byzantine
Church, the Chora, contains what are thought by many to be the most
spectacular examples of Byzantine frescos and mosaics depicting biblical
scenes. This church took its present form in the fourteenth century; and
was converted into a mosque by Sultan Bayezid II (1481-1512).
Byzantine
Constantinople never recovered from the destruction and plunder of the
Fourth Cn.ısaders, who occupied the city and established a Latin Empire
there. The Byzantine Empire regained control of Constantinople in 1261,
but even an ambitious building programme could not restore the city to its
former splendour and prosperity. The population, which had once been
500,000, steadily declined to 50,000. Production levels diminished and
famine broke out. A thousand year-old chapter of history was drawing to an
end, and the city was on the brink of a new era as the Ottoman Turks
gradually advanced through Asia Minor and the Balkan peninsula.
THE OTTOMANS
The Ottomans first
laid siege to Istanbul in 1391. The siege dragged on for years, and in
1396 Bayezid I (1389-1403) constructed a fortress on the Asian shore of
the Bosphorus to prevent aid getting through to the besieged city from the
Black Sea.
Sixty
years later Mehmed II (1451-1481) besieged Istanbul again. He built a
second fortress, Rumeli Hisarı, on the other side of the Bosphorus facing
that built by his grandfather Bayezid I, so exerting an even tighter
stranglehold on the city. The fortress, which was completed in the brief
time of four months, had an irregular plan following the contours of the
hilly site. The three great towers were named after three of Mehmed II's
vezirs, Halil Paşa, Zağanos Paşa and Sarıca Paşa.
Mehmed II had
artisans brought from Europe to cast great cannon powerful enough to
demolish the Byzantine walls. When everything was ready at the beginning
of March 1453, the Ottoman armies gathered outside the city walls. The
siege had begun. On 4 April Turkish cannon began to bombard the walls
along the Marmara Sea. The Golden Horn was, as the Byzantines thought,
impenetrable thanks to the great chain stretched across the mouth of the
waterway to prevent vessels entering. They had not reckoned with Mehmed
II's decision to drag fifty of his galleys on wooden runners over the
hilly ridge of land between Dolmabahçe on the Bosphorus and Kasımpaşa
on the Golden Horn. This nasty surprise undermined what remained of
Byzantine morale.
Capital of the
Ottoman Empire (1453 -
1923)
Istanbul will
without fail be conquered
What an excellent commander is he who will take it,
And what excellent soldiers will his soldiers be.
Hadith(I'raditions of the Prophet)
In
the attack launched on the morning of 29 May the land walls were breached
at Topkapı (not the palace of that name but a city gate several
kilometres to the west). The same day Mehmed II entered the city on
horseback and performed his prayers in the church of Haghia Sophia. In
accordance with Ottoman tradition the city's cathedral was converted into
a mosque. The church of the Holy Apostles and numerous others remained as
churches for the time being. Thereafter Mehmed II was known as Fatih, or
the Conqueror.
The
Byzantine Great Palace which had stood between Haghia Sophia and the
Hippodrome had been looted and razed during the Latin occupation. With the
restoration of the Byzantine rulers in 1261, they used the Palace of
Blakhernai situated inside the land walls where they descended to join the
sea walls along the Golden Horn. Immediately after the conquest Mehmed II
had a fortress and palace built in the area which was to become known as
Beyazıt west of Haghia Sophia. A large bazaar was constructed beneath the
walls of the fortress.
The once splendid
city was falling into nıin when it was taken by the Turks, who set about
repairing the old buildings and city walls. Others beyond repair provided
foundations on which new Ottoman buildings were constructed. The huge
underground water cisterns were also repaired.
Those who had fled
the city began to return, while new settlers of diverse ethnic origin and
faith arrived from all over the Ottoman Empire, creating a colourful
cultural mosaic.
Acquiring an
Ottoman architectural identity
Gradually
the city developed its distinctly Ottoman identity. Mosques founded by the
sultans and members of their families were distinguished by having more
than one minaret, and were known as selatin, the plural form of
sultan. Istanbul's first selatin mosque was that built by Mehmed II, with
its symmetrically arranged complex of colleges (medrese), hospice
(tabhane), hospital (darüşşifa),shops, and baths (hamam).Its architect
was Atik Sinan ('Old' Sinan to distinguish him from the later and more
celebrated Sinan). Over the next few centuries sultans, other members of
the dynasty, and statesmen founded mosques in their names, and around them
various institutions. Small mosques with modest complexes built by
statesmen were known as vezir camior vezir mosques.
When the Umayyads
had besieged Istanbul in the year 668 Eyyub el-Ensari, standard bearer to
the Prophet Muhammed, had died in the fighting. In 1459 Mehmed II had Eyüp
Sultan Mosque built in his memory, together with a complex coıisisting of
medrese, imaret (public kitchen) and hamam. It was in this mosque that the
Ottoman sultans girded their sword of office upon acceding to the throne.
Construction of
Topkapı Palace began in 1472 and was completed in, 1478, although succes-
sive sultans added new buildings to the complex over the centuries. The
outer entrance which led into the first couı2, the Alay Meydanı (Parade
Square), was the Imperial Gate or Bab-ı Hümayun. At the faı-ther end of
the first couıt was the main entrance gate called Babüsselam (Gate of
Greeting), which led into the second court, the Divan Meydanı. Here were
the palace hospital, bakery and arsenal buildings, the royal mews along
the left side and the kitchen buildings along the right.
The
gate leading from the second to the third couıt was the Babüssaade (Gate
of Felicity), and in the third court was the Arz Odası or Throne Room
where foreign ambassadors and statesmen were granted audience. The
buildings behind here date from the eighteenth century and were occupied
by the pages and men of the Enderun who served in the private household of
the sultan. The Has Oda or Hall of the Privy Chamber, occupied by the
officials who served the sultan in person, stands on the west side of the
court next to the Pavilion of the Holy Mantle containing relics of the
Prophet Muhammed and the first caliphs. In the fourth couı-t are several
lovely köşks(pavilions) built by different sultans. These are the Bağdat,
Revan, Sofa and Mecidiye köşks.
Topkapı Palace was
both home to the Ottoman sultans and centre of government for four hundred
years, and over this time the palace was in a constant state of
fluctuation, with additions and alterations carried out by various
sultans.
Sultan Bayezid II
(1481-1512), the son of Mehmed II, built a mosque complex in his name
between 1500 and 1505. Located in a central position west of the
Hippodrome, it was almost certainly the work of two architects, Kemaleddin
and Hayreddin. The complex is an important link in the history of Turkish
architecture, in terms of its relationship to its site, its architectural
composition, decoration, and the institutions housed in the secondary
buildings. As well as the mosque itself, there was a türbeor mausoleum
for Sultan Bayezid, an imaret, children's school, hospices, medrese,
hamam, and kervansaray. The mosque had a square prayer hall covered by a
large dome supported on either side by two semidomes. The arches of the
colonnades around the court were of white and red marble. Exquisite stone
carving decorated the mihrapniche, minber (pulpit), müezzin’s gallery,
and the women's gallery, while the woodwork decoration of the doors and
windows was the finest of its period.
On
his return from the Egyptian Campaign in 1517, Selim I (1512-1520) brought
back the Islamic holy relics and took the title of caliph. From that point
on Istanbul became the centre of Islam.
During the reign of
Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566), Mimar Sinan built the Şehzade
Mosque in memory of Süleyman's son Mehmed, overlooking both the Golden
Horn and the Marmara Sea. This was the fırst royal mosque built by Sinan,
and the one which he was to refer to later in life as 'the work of my
apprenticeship'. The complex consisted of mosque, medrese, hospice,
stables, school, imaret and the tomb of Şehzade Mehmed.
Selim's royal mosque
complex, which was completed posthumously in 1522, consisted of his türbe,
and an imaret, medrese and hospital.
From this point on
the new Ottoman capital began to find its own identity through buildings
constructed by Mimar Sinan. In 1548 he built Mihrimah Sultan Mosque for
Mihrimah Sultan, the daughter of Süleyman the Magnificent, in Üsküdar.
It was surrounded by a complex consisting of medrese, guest house,
stables, food store, warehouse and han. The two great pillars inside this
mosque were in the shape of four-leafed clover.
Süleymaniye
Mosque, which Sinan referred to as his `journeyman's piece', was
constructed in 1557. The genius of Sinan's architecture seemed to
symbolise the power of Süleyman. The composition of the great domed inner
space illustrates the culmination of Ottoman mosque design. In order to
draw off the smoke from the burning lamps and candles, and keep the air
fresh when the mosque was full of people, he created a ventilation system
whereby the air circulated through a chamber over the main entrance.
Moreover the particles of carbon in the smoke were deposited in this
chamber and scraped off for making the lamp black ink used by
calligraphers.
The Atik Valide
Mosque was constructed between 1570 and 1579 for Nurbanu Valide Sultan,
the mother of Murat III (1574-1595). Again the mosque and its complex were
designed by Sinan, and consisted of mosque, medrese, tekke (dervish
lodge), children's school, darülhadis (school for teaching the hadith),
darülkurra (school for teaching the Koran), imaret, hospital and hamam.
The courtyard encircling the mosque to the north, east and west, contained
a şadırvan (fountain for ablutions) and gave access to the mosque through
four doors. The finest of the tiling decoration are two exquisite panels
on either side of the mihrap niche. The wooden doors and window shutters
are inlaid with mother-of pearl and ivory.
Şemsi
Paşa Mosque on the water's edge in Üsküdar was built by Sinan for Şemsi
Ahmed Paşa in 1580. This is the smallest of the mosque complexes built by
Mimar Sinan. It is in classical Ottoman style, and consists of the
founder's türbe and a medrese as well as the tiny mosque.
Sultanahmet Mosque
was built at the southern end of the ancient Hippodrome between 1609 and
1616 for Sultan Ahmed I (1603-1617). Its architect was Sedefkar Mehmed Ağa.
On the eastern side of the mosque was an arasta,or market of shops to
provide income for the upkeep of the mosque, and to the north a hünkâr
kasır, or suite of private rooms for the sultan's use prior to and
following prayers. The mosque was celebrated not so much for its
architecture as for its exquisite İznik tiles of the last great period.
The Galata Tower
built in 1349 was part of the defences of the old Genoese city facing
Istanbul proper across the mouth of the Golden Horn. Its original name was
the Christ Tower. During Ottoman times it was used first as a prison and
later as a fire tower. In the seventeenth century, during the reign of
Murad II (1623-1640), a scientist by the name of Hezarfen Ahmed Çelebi
Iaunched himself off the top of the tower wearing wings which he had made
for himself, and successfully completed the flight across the Bosphorus to
Üsküdar.
In 1660, during the
reign of Mehmed IV (1649-1687), the Mısır Çarşısı (Egyptian Bazaar)
was built, and between 1661 and 1663 the half-finished Yeni (New) Mosque
was completed by Hatice Sultan. This mosque had been begun in 1597
by Safiye Sultan, the mother of Mehmed III. After the death of Davud Ağa,
the original architect, Mimar Dalgıç Ahmed Ağa continued with the
construction until 1603. With the accession of Ahmed I the project was
left unfinished, and meanwhile Ahmed I began construction of his own
mosque in Sultanahmet.
The
magnificent baroque fountain of Sultan Ahmet III (1703-1730) which has a
fountain in each of its four walls and a sebil where cups of water were
distributed to passersby at each corner, was built outside the main gate
of Topkapı Palace.
The ancient
Hippodrome, known in Turkish as Atmeydanı, was used for playing the
equestrian game of cirit (jereed) and for public celebrations of the
circumcision of royal princes. One of the monuments on the spina of the
Hippodrome was a stone column originally sheathed in bronze, but this was
melted down to mint coins by the Fourth Crusaders after they occupied
Istanbul in the thirteenth century and set up a Latin empire which lasted
until the middle of the century. During the Turkish period climbing this
bare column was regarded as an acrobatic feat, as recorded by eyewitnesses
and contemporary miniatures.
In 1755 Mahmud I
(1730-1754) built the Nuruosmaniye Mosque at one of the entrances to the
Covered Bazaar. With its polygonal projecting mihrap and western stylistic
influences, this mosque was very different from its predecessors. Its
complex consisted of an imaret, medrese, library, türbe, sebil, fountain
and shops.
In 1763 Mustafa III
(1757-1774) built his royal mosque in Laleli, with its complex of imaret,
fountain, sebil, türbe, han, medrese, muvakkithane(horologe room), houses
for the imam and müezzin, and shops. Its architect is thought to be Hacı
Mehmed Ağa.
Dersaadet of the
Ottomans
In the nineteenth
century Istanbul's population consisted of Muslim Turks, Orthodox Greeks,
Gregorian and Catholic Armenians, Jews, Levantines and colonies of foreign
merchants.
This
century was a time of modernisation and reform for the Ottoman Empire, and
naturally the capital city was at the forefront of these changes. In the
process of westernisation in the military, economic and social fields
foreign experts from Europe were appointed to impoıtant posts,
particularly in the army, which had German, Swedish, British and French paşas
in its ranks. The sultans adopted the dress of their western
counterpaıts, rejecting kaftans and şalvarin favour of trousers and
jackets, and replacing the turban with the fez. In the cultural field,
western style painting, architecture and music became popular.
The reign of Mahmud
II (1808-1839) marked the first most impoıtant phase of these changes. In
1824 the empire's first newspaper, Smyrnéen, went into publication
in İzmir. Convinced that the tradition-bound Janissary Corps was no
longer capable of defending the empire, Mahmud II laid plans to found a
new modern army, resolving to pick 150 of the ablest soldiers from each of
the 51 janissary regiments in Istanbul for this puıpose. When the news
got out it sparked off a janissaıy revolt on the night of 4 June 1826.
The janissaries rampaged through the city looting, but when they found
that they had no popular suppoıt from citizens wjıo backed the sultan's
plans, they retreated to their barracks. The sultan's own forces
surrounded the barracks and bombarded them, killing all those inside and
then set fire to the building. Thus, after 465 years, the Janissary Coıps
was dissolved on 15 June 1826. Sultan Mahmud II set about founding his new
army.
Mahmud II's own
royal mosque, the Nusretiye, was built by Kirkor Amira Balyan for the
sultan in 1826. The şadırvan in the stone courtyard has twelve taps and
a conical roof resting on twelve slender columns.
The
first steam driven vessels began to replace sailing ships around this
time. Meanwhile, fires continued to ravage the city at frequent intervals,
since almost all the houses were made of wood. In 1828 the Balyan family
of architects built the 50 m high Beyazıt fire tower.
The first bridge
connecting the walled city of Istanbul to Galata on the other side of the
Golden Horn was constıucted in 1836. It was a pontoon bridge designed by
Admiral of the Fleet Ahmet Fevzi. Since no toll was charged to cross it,
it was known as the Hayratiye (Charity Bridge).
Mahmud II was the
first Ottoman sultan to have his poıtrait hung in government offices. He
also had a decoration inauqurated bearing miniature poıtraits of himself,
known as Tasvir-i Hümayun (Imperial Portrait), which he presented to his
most loyal state officers, hanging the decorâtion around their necks
himself. Conseıvative factions began to stir up public opposition on the
grounds that poıtraiture contravened religious doctrine, . and following
the death of Sultan Mahmud in 1839, his portraits in government buildings
were covered over by cuıtains. But gradually people became used to the
idea, as they were to become used,to photographs. Mahmud II's son Sultan
Abdülmecid (1839-1861) proclaimed a series of reforms known as the
Tanzimat Ferman or Gülhane Hatt-ı Hümayun almost immediately after his
accession to the throne. The reforms had beendrawn up by Mustafa Reşid Paşa
and were proclaimed by the latter in Gülhane Gardens behind Topkapı
Palace on 3 November 1839.
In 1847 the first
demonstration in the Ottoman Empire of the newly invented telegraph was
conducted at the large wooden palace of Beylerbeyi in the presence of
Sultan Abdülmecid, who himself sent the first message over the line. He
then ordered that a telegraph line be set up between Istanbul and Edirne.
.
In 1850 Şirket-i
Hayriye, Istanbul Maritime Lines, was established and began to organise
regular steam ferry services across the Bosphorus and to the Islands.
In 1851 Sultan Abdülmecid
had the Empire style Hırka-i Şerif Mosque (Mosque of the Holy Mantle)
constructed in Fatih. Here the mantle presented by the Prophet Muhammed to
Veysel Karani was to be kept and visited during the month of Ramazan.
Another
member of the Balyan family of architects, Nikoğos, built the neo-baroque
Ortaköy Mosque on the European shore of the Bosphon.ıs in 1853. The same
year the Ottoman Empire and its allies France and Britain began fighting
Russia in the Crimean War.
Topkapı Palace,
which had been both the sultan's private residence and seat of government
since the fifteenth century, lost this status in 1853 when the court moved
to the new palace of Dolmabahçe. This palace, designed by the Balyan
family of court architects, was in an eclectic style heavily influenced by
contemporary western architecture.
Two years later
Dolmabahçe Mosque, one of the last examples of Empire style in Istanbul,
was designed by Garabet Balyan. Its founder was Bezmialem Valide
Sultan, the mother of Abdülmecid, who completed its construction
after his mother's death.
Around the same time
the small summer palace of Küçüksu designed by Nikoğos Balyan, chief
architect to Abdülmecid, was constructed on the Asian shore of the
Bosphon.ıs in the area known to Europeans as the Sweet Waters of Asia.
The nineteenth
century saw a rush of new inventions and an expansion of world trade, and
from the middle of the nineteenth century onwards the fashion for trade
and industrial exhibitions began. Here goods from all over the world and
the latest inventions were displayed to the public. The first Ottoman
trade fair was held in Sultanahmet in 1863 during the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz
(1861-1876). The exhibits ranged from commodities like Turkish coffee and
silk production, to the fine arts, including architectural models. The
first two days of each week the exhibition was opened to women only. The
same year Sultan Abdülaziz visited Cairo.
In 1865 the
architect Sarkis Balyan built the new Beylerbeyi Palace in place of the
old wooden palace on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus.
On 21 June 1867
Sultan Abdülaziz became the first Ottoman sultan to pay a state visit
abroad. He travelled by the royal yacht, the Sultaniye,to Toulon, from
where he took the train to Paris, and then travelled to England. He
returned by land via Belgium, Coblenz, Prussia, Vienna and Budapest, aı-riving
back in Istanbul on 7 August.
In
1847 the first demonstration in the Ottoman Empire of the newly invented
telegraph was conducted at the large wooden palace of Beylerbeyi in the
presence of Sultan Abdülmecid, who himself sent the first message over
the line. He then ordered that a telegraph line be set up between Istanbul
and Edirne.
.
In 1850 Şirket-i
Hayriye, Istanbul Maritime Lines, was established and began to organise
regular steam ferry services across the Bosphorus and to the Islands.
In 1851 Sultan Abdülmecid
had the Empire style Hırka-i Şerif Mosque (Mosque of the Holy Mantle)
constructed in Fatih. Here the mantle presented by the Prophet Muhammed to
Veysel Karani was to be kept and visited during the month of Ramazan.
Another member of
the Balyan family of architects, Nikoğos, built the neo-baroque Ortaköy
Mosque on the European shore of the Bosphon in 1853. The same year the
Ottoman Empire and its allies France and Britain began fighting Russia in
the Crimean War.
Topkapı Palace,
which had been both the sultan's private residence and seat of government
since the fifteenth century, lost this status in 1853 when the court moved
to the new palace of Dolmabahçe. This palace, designed by the Balyan
family of court architects, was in an eclectic style heavily influenced by
contemporary western architecture.
Two years later
Dolmabahçe Mosque, one of the last examples of Empire style in Istanbul,
was designed by Garabet Balyan. Its founder was Bezmialem Valide
Sultan, the mother of Abdülmecid, who completed its construction
after his mother's death.
Around the same time
the small summer palace of Küçüksu designed by Nikoğos Balyan, chief
architect to Abdülmecid, was constructed on the Asian shore of the
Bosphon in the area known to Europeans as the Sweet Waters of Asia.
The nineteenth
century saw a rush of new inventions and an expansion of world trade, and
from the middle of the nineteenth century onwards the fashion for trade
and industrial exhibitions began. Here goods from all over the world and
the latest inventions were displayed to the public. The first Ottoman
trade fair was held in Sultanahmet in 1863 during the reign of Sultan Abdülaziz
(1861-1876). The exhibits ranged from commodities like Turkish coffee and
silk production, to the fine arts, including architectural models. The
first two days of each week the exhibition was opened to women only. The
same year Sultan Abdülaziz visited Cairo.
In 1865 the
architect Sarkis Balyan built the new Beylerbeyi Palace in place of the
old wooden palace on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus.
On 21 June 1867
Sultan Abdülaziz became the first Ottoman sultan to pay a state visit
abroad. He travelled by the royal yacht, the Sultaniye, to Toulon, from
where he took the train to Paris, and then travelled to England. He
returned by land via Belgium, Coblenz, Prussia, Vienna and Budapest,
arriving back in Istanbul on 7 August.
In 1871 Çırağan
Palace was built by Sarkis and Agop Balyan according to a design by Nikoğos
Balyan. Aroyal hunting lodge was then built at Ayazağa in Maslak, and the
Valide Mosque founded by Pertevniyal Valide Sultan, mother of Sultan Abdülaziz
in Aksaray, which had been commenced in 1869 but left unfinished, was
completed in 1871. This mosque complex, consisting of school, türbe,
muvakkithane and sebil, was designed and built by Sarkis Balyan. The
diverse and ornate decoration on the façades distinguish it from other
nineteenth century mosques, as do the neo-Gothic features of the interior.
Horse-drawn trams
and the short underground funicular railway which carried passengers up
and down the steep hill between the commercial district of Karaköy on the
shore and the residential district of Pera introduced alternative means of
transport in Istanbul.
In 23 December 1876,
the year of his accession, Abdülhamid II (1876-1909) proclaimed the First
Constitutional Government. For a brief time the Ottoman Empire was ruled
by a constitutional monarchy, but three months later the sultan dissolved
Parliament and repealed the constitution. The Academy of Fine Arts
(Sanayi-i Nefise Mektebi) was founded, primarily due to the efforts of
Osman Hamdi Bey, who was also instrumental in the founding of the
Archaeological Museum, later housed in a building designed by Vallaury.
Sultan Abdülhamid
II appointed photographers to document events, buildings and sights around
the empire, and was the principal patron of photography in Ottoman Turkey.
He sent albums of photographs to fellow heads of state around the world,
as a means of illustrating the progress and achievements of his empire.
The
area northwest of Beşiktaş had been forest in Byzantine times, and was a
hunting ground for Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent and his successors.
When the waterfront palaces were constructed there, the woodland was
preserved as a park belonging to the palace grounds. Early in the
nineteenth century Sultan Selim III had a country house constructed in
this woodland for his mother Mihrişah Valide Sultan, and in 1834 Sultan
Mahmud II had another country house known as Yıldız built here. In 1842
Sultan Abdülmecid had a third house built here for his mother Bezmialem
Valide Sultan. The area became known as Yıldız, and the small complex of
royal summer residences here grew into a full-scale palace with the
accession of Sultan Abdülhamid II in 1876. He constructed new state
apartments, the Şale Kasır (so named because its architecture was
inspired by the chalets of Switzerland), and the köşks (pavilions or
country houses) of Malta and Çadır designed by Sarkis and Agop Balyan.
The Italian architect Raimondo d'Aronco designed the Winter Gardens and
conservatories, the guard pavilion, the Harem Köşk, the Aides Köşk,
the stable building, theatre, and exhibition building. In 1896 the
terraced stone houses on Akaretler Hill were constructed to house palace
officials.
The Second
Constitution was proclaimed on 23 July 1908, and in 1909, the year that
Haydarpaşa Railway Station was opened, Abdülhamid II was deposed by the
Young Turks.
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